Portal:Modern history

The Modern History Portal

World population, 10,000 BCE – 2,000 CE (vertical population scale is logarithmic)

Human history (or world history) is the narrative of humanity's past. It is understood through archaeology, anthropology, genetics, linguistics, and (since the advent of writing) primary and secondary source documents.

Humanity's written history was preceded by its prehistory, beginning with the Palaeolithic ("Old Stone Age") era. This was followed by the Neolithic ("New Stone Age") era, which saw the Agricultural Revolution begin in the Near East's Fertile Crescent between 10,000 and 5,000 BCE. During this period, humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals. As agriculture advanced, most humans transitioned from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle as farmers in permanent settlements. The relative security and increased productivity provided by farming allowed communities to expand into increasingly larger units, fostered by advances in transportation.

Whether in prehistoric or historic times, people always needed to be near reliable sources of drinking water. Settlements developed as early as 4,000 BCE in Iran, Mesopotamia, the Indus River valley on the Indian subcontinent, as well as on the banks of Egypt's Nile River, along China's rivers and the short rivers that flow from the Andes in the central coast of Peru. As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons. Labour divisions led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the development of cities, which provided the foundation for civilization. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of accounting and writing. Hinduism developed in the late Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent. The Axial Age witnessed the introduction of religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Jainism. (Full article...)

Selected articles -

Image 1
French Napoleonic artillery during the Battle of Austerlitz (1805).

Modern reenactment is historical reenactment of events of the modern period, most commonly events from the 18th century to the present.

The period starts with events such as the Seven Years' War, the Napoleonic Wars, and the peak of the Royal Navy's power.

The Victorian era is included, although not as well covered in terms of events as the major battles before and after it, with the notable exception of the American Civil War, which has a large and active community of reenactors. (Full article...)
Image 2
This is a timeline of modern Greek history. (Full article...)
Image 3
Clockwise from the top:
* The road to Bapaume in the aftermath of the Battle of the Somme, 1916* British Mark V tanks crossing the Hindenburg Line, 1918* HMS Irresistible sinking after hitting a mine in the Dardanelles, 1915* A British Vickers machine gun crew wearing gas masks during the Battle of the Somme, 1916* German Albatros D.III biplane fighters near Douai, France, 1917

World War I, often abbreviated as WWI or WW1, also known as the First World War and contemporaneously known as the Great War and by other names, was an international conflict that began on 28 July 1914 and ended on 11 November 1918. It involved much of Europe, as well as Russia, the United States and Turkey, and was also fought in the Middle East, Africa and parts of Asia. One of the deadliest conflicts in history, an estimated 9 million were killed in combat, while over 5 million civilians died from occupation, bombardment, hunger or disease. The genocides perpetrated by the Ottomans and the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic spread by the movement of combatants during the war caused many millions of additional deaths worldwide.

In 1914, the Great Powers were divided into two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente, consisting of France, Russia, and Britain, and the Triple Alliance, made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Tensions in the Balkans came to a head on 28 June 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Austro-Hungarian heir, by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and the interlocking alliances involved the Powers in a series of diplomatic exchanges known as the July Crisis. On 28 July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia; Russia came to Serbia's defence and by 4 August, the conflict had expanded to include Germany, France and Britain, along with their respective colonial empires. In November, the Ottoman Empire, Germany and Austria formed the Central Powers, while in April 1915, Italy joined Britain, France, Russia and Serbia as the Allied Powers.

Facing a war on two fronts, German strategy in 1914 was to defeat France, then shift its forces to the East and knock out Russia, commonly known as the Schlieffen Plan. This failed when their advance into France was halted at the Marne; by the end of 1914, the two sides faced each other along the Western Front, a continuous series of trench lines stretching from the Channel to Switzerland that changed little until 1917. By contrast, the Eastern Front was far more fluid, with Austria-Hungary and Russia gaining, then losing large swathes of territory. Other significant theatres included the Middle East, the Alpine Front and the Balkans, bringing Bulgaria, Romania and Greece into the war. (Full article...)
Image 4
The Journal of Modern History is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering European intellectual, political, and cultural history, published by the University of Chicago Press. Established in 1929, the journal covers events from approximately 1500 to the present, with a geographical scope extending from the United Kingdom through the European continent, including Russia and the Balkans. (Full article...)
Image 5
Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity. It is not a specific doctrine or school (and thus should not be confused with Modernism), although there are certain assumptions common to much of it, which helps to distinguish it from earlier philosophy.

The 17th and early 20th centuries roughly mark the beginning and the end of modern philosophy. How much of the Renaissance should be included is a matter for dispute; likewise modernity may or may not have ended in the twentieth century and been replaced by postmodernity. How one decides these questions will determine the scope of one's use of the term "modern philosophy." (Full article...)
Image 6
Literary modernism, or modernist literature, originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America, and is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional ways of writing, in both poetry and prose fiction writing. Modernism experimented with literary form and expression, as exemplified by Ezra Pound's maxim to "Make it new." This literary movement was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express the new sensibilities of their time. The horrors of the First World War saw the prevailing assumptions about society reassessed, and much modernist writing engages with the technological advances and societal changes of modernity moving into the 20th century. (Full article...)
Image 7
In the history of contemporary Spain, the death of caudillo Francisco Franco on 20 November 1975 marked the beginning of the Spanish transition to democracy, the establishment of the parliamentary monarchy and the subsequent accession of King Juan Carlos I to the throne. In 1978, the current Spanish Constitution of 1978 was signed and the status of Spain's autonomous entities (autonomías) was defined. (Full article...)
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The Kingdom of France (French: Royaume de France) in the early modern period, from the Renaissance (circa 1500–1550) to the Revolution (1789–1804), was a monarchy ruled by the House of Bourbon (a Capetian cadet branch). This corresponds to the so-called Ancien Régime ("old rule"). The territory of France during this period increased until it included essentially the extent of the modern country, and it also included the territories of the first French colonial empire overseas.

The period is dominated by the figure of the "Sun King", Louis XIV (his reign of 1643–1715 being one of the longest in history), who managed to eliminate the remnants of medieval feudalism and established a centralized state under an absolute monarch, a system that would endure until the French Revolution and beyond. (Full article...)
Image 9
Contemporary archaeology is a field of archaeological research that focuses on the most recent (20th and 21st century) past, and also increasingly explores the application of archaeological thinking to the contemporary world. It has also been referred to as the archaeology of the 'contemporary past'. The use of this term in the United Kingdom is particularly associated with the Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory (CHAT) conference group. The field forms part of historical archaeology, or the archaeology of the modern period. Unlike ethnoarchaeology, contemporary archaeology studies the recent and contemporary past in its own right, rather than to develop models that can inform the study of the more distant past. (Full article...)
Image 10

The Restoration (Spanish: Restauración), or Bourbon Restoration (Spanish: Restauración borbónica), is the name given to the period that began on 29 December 1874—after a coup d'état by Martínez Campos ended the First Spanish Republic and restored the monarchy under Alfonso XII—and ended on 14 April 1931 with the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic.

After almost a century of political instability and many civil wars, the aim of the Restoration was to create a new political system, which ensured stability by the practice of turnismo. This was the deliberate rotation of the Liberal and Conservative parties in the government, often achieved through electoral fraud. Opposition to the system came from Republicans, Socialists, Anarchists, Basque and Catalan nationalists, and Carlists. (Full article...)
Image 11

The New-York Tribune printed this map on 9 November 1919, of the armed conflicts in Central and Eastern Europe in 1919, one year after World War I had ended:

In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days), the end of the First World War to the beginning of the Second World War. The interwar period was relatively short, yet featured many significant social, political, and economic changes throughout the world. Petroleum-based energy production and associated mechanisation led to the prosperous Roaring Twenties, a time of both social mobility and economic mobility for the middle class. Automobiles, electric lighting, radio, and more became common among populations in the developed world. The indulgences of the era subsequently were followed by the Great Depression, an unprecedented worldwide economic downturn that severely damaged many of the world's largest economies.

Politically, the era coincided with the rise of communism, starting in Russia with the October Revolution and Russian Civil War, at the end of World War I, and ended with the rise of fascism, particularly in Germany and in Italy. China was in the midst of half-a-century of instability and the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China. The empires of Britain, France and others faced challenges as imperialism was increasingly viewed negatively in Europe, and independence movements emerged in many colonies; for example the south of Ireland became independent after much fighting.

The Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, and German Empires were dismantled, with the Ottoman and German colonies redistributed among the Allies, chiefly Britain and France. The western parts of the Russian Empire, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland became independent nations in their own right, and Bessarabia (now Moldova and parts of Ukraine) chose to reunify with Romania. (Full article...)
Image 12

Italian Libya (Italian: Libia Italiana; Arabic: ليبيا الإيطالية, romanized: Lībyā al-Īṭālīya) was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy located in North Africa, in what is now modern Libya, between 1934 and 1943. It was formed from the unification of the colonies of Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, which had been Italian possessions since 1911.

From 1911 until the establishment of a unified colony in 1934, the territory of the two colonies was sometimes referred to as "Italian Libya" or Italian North Africa (Africa Settentrionale Italiana, or ASI). Both names were also used after the unification, with Italian Libya becoming the official name of the newly combined colony. It had a population of around 150,000 Italians.

The Italian colonies of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were taken by Italy from the Ottoman Empire during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912, and run by Italian governors. In 1923, indigenous rebels associated with the Senussi Order organized the Libyan resistance movement against Italian settlement in Libya, mainly in Cyrenaica. The rebellion was put down by Italian forces in 1932, after the so-called "pacification campaign", which resulted in the deaths of a quarter of Cyrenaica's population. In 1934, the colonies were unified by governor Italo Balbo, with Tripoli as the capital. (Full article...)
Image 13
A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835.

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.

Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and many of the technological and architectural innovations were of British origin. By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean, and with major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent, particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution. (Full article...)
Image 14

Spain in the 19th century was a country in turmoil, occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a massively destructive "liberation war" ensued. A liberal constitution was proclaimed in 1812. Spain was divided between the liberal ideas and the absolutism personified by the rule of Ferdinand VII, who repealed the 1812 Constitution for the first time in 1814, only to be forced to swear over the constitution again in 1820 after a liberal pronunciamiento, giving way to the brief Trienio Liberal (1820–1823).

Economic transformations throughout the century include the privatisation of communal municipal lands—not interrupted but actually intensified and legimitised during the Fernandine absolutist restorations— as well as the confiscation of Church properties. The early century saw the loss of the bulk of the Spanish colonies in the New World in the 1810s and 1820s, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico. The regency of Maria Christina and the reign of Isabella II brought reforms repelling the extremes of the absolutist Ominous Decade (1823–1833).

Civil wars broke out in the country—the so-called Carlist Wars—pitting the government forces against the reactionary Carlists, a legitimist movement in favour of the Ancien Régime. Disaffection with Isabella's government from many quarters led to repeated military intervention in political affairs and to several revolutionary attempts against the government, including the 1854 revolution. The 1868 Glorious revolution deposed Isabella and installed a provisional government, leading up to the election of a constituent assembly under universal manhood suffrage that elaborated the 1869 constitution. The brief spell of Amadeo of Savoy as constitutional monarch was followed after his abdication by the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic, which was replaced after a 1874 coup by the reign of Alfonso XII, bringing the Bourbon dynasty back to power. (Full article...)
Image 15
Flag of the Kingdom of Syria (1920)

The modern history of Syria begins with the termination of Ottoman control of Syria by French forces and the establishment of the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration during World War I. The short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria emerged in 1920, which was however soon committed under the French Mandate, which produced the short-lived autonomous State of Aleppo, State of Damascus (later State of Syria (1924–30)), Alawite State and Jabal al-Druze (state); the autonomies were transformed into the Mandatory Syrian Republic in 1930. Syrian Republic gained independence in April 1946. The Republic took part in the Arab-Israeli War and remained in a state of political instability during the 1950s and 1960s.

The 8 March 1963 coup resulted in the installation of the National Council for the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Ba'ath Party led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. He was overthrown in early 1966 by Marxist-Leninist military dissidents of the party led by General Salah Jadid. Since the Arab Spring of 2011, Bashar al-Assad's government has been involved in the ongoing Syrian civil war. (Full article...)

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General images -

The following are images from various modern history-related articles on Wikipedia.

Image 1A stamp commemorating Alexander Fleming. His discovery of penicillin had changed the world of modern medicine by introducing the age of antibiotics. (from 20th century)
(c) Dhirad, CC-BY-SA-3.0
Image 2Taj Mahal, Mughal Empire, India (from Human history)
Image 3I and the Village, 1911, by Marc Chagall, a modern painter. (from 20th century)
Image 4Oil field in California, 1938.
The first modern oil well was drilled in 1848 by Russian engineer F.N. Semyonov, on the Apsheron Peninsula north-east of Baku. (from 20th century)
(c) Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-020-1268-36 / Hähle, Johannes / CC-BY-SA 3.0
Image 5Ukraine, early days of the 1941 Nazi invasion. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people between 1941 and 1945, almost half of all World War II deaths. (from 20th century)
Image 6Hong Kong, under British administration from 1842 to 1997, is one of the original four Asian tigers. (from 20th century)
Image 7Albert Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. (from 20th century)
Image 8Last Moon landing: Apollo 17 (1972) (from Human history)
Image 9Cave painting, Lascaux, France, c. 15,000 BCE (from Human history)
Image 10World distribution of wealth and population in 2000. (from Contemporary history)
(c) Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0
Image 11Machu Picchu, Inca Empire, Peru (from Human history)
(c) Fabien Dany - www.fabiendany.com, CC BY-SA 2.5
Image 12Ming dynasty section, Great Wall of China (from Human history)
Image 13Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt (from Human history)
Image 14Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, founded 670 CE (from Human history)
Image 15Monumental Cuneiform inscription, Sumer, Mesopotamia, 26th century BCE (from Human history)
Image 16World population, 10,000 BCE – 2,000 CE (vertical population scale is logarithmic) (from Human history)
Image 17Martin Luther King Jr., an African American civil rights leader (Washington, August 1963) (from 20th century)
Image 181570 world map, showing Europeans' discoveries (from Human history)
Image 19Empires of the world in 1898 (from Human history)
Image 20China urbanized rapidly in the 21st century (Shanghai pictured). (from Human history)
Image 21Civilians (here, Mỹ Lai, Vietnam, 1968) suffered greatly in 20th-century wars. (from Human history)
Image 22U.S. Army troops in Kunar province (from Contemporary history)
Image 23First flight of the Wright Flyer, December 17, 1903, Orville piloting, Wilbur running at wingtip. (from 20th century)
Image 24The Buddha (from Human history)
Image 25The pioneer of computer science, Alan Turing (from 20th century)
Image 26St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. (from Human history)
Image 27Crusader Krak des Chevaliers, Syria (from Human history)
Image 28Map of the British Empire (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history. (from 20th century)
Image 29
World powers and empires in 1914, just before the First World War.
(The Austro-Hungarian flag should be shown instead of the Austrian Empire's one)
(from 20th century)
Image 30The Empire State Building is an iconic building of the 1930s. (from 20th century)
Image 31A prisoner being tortured in the Abu Ghraib prison (from Contemporary history)
Image 32Gutenberg Bible, ca. 1450, produced using movable type (from Human history)
(c) Baz Lecocq at nl.wikipedia, CC BY 2.5 nl
Image 33University of Timbuktu, Mali (from Human history)
Image 34Pillar erected by India's Maurya Emperor Ashoka (from Human history)
Image 35The World Trade Center on fire and the Statue of Liberty. (from Contemporary history)
Image 36The first airplane, the Wright Flyer, flew, 1903. (from Human history)
Image 37Countries by real GDP growth rate in 2014. (Countries in brown were in recession.) (from Contemporary history)
Image 38Norman Borlaug, father of the Green Revolution, is often credited with saving over a billion people worldwide from starvation. (from 20th century)
Image 39Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of 1923). (from 20th century)
Image 40Atomic bombings: Hiroshima, Nagasaki, 1945 (from Human history)
Image 41Charlie Chaplin in his 1921 film The Kid, with Jackie Coogan. (from 20th century)
Image 42Moai, Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (from Human history)
Image 43Battle during 1281 Mongol invasion of Japan (from Human history)
Image 44A brass "Benin Bronze" from Nigeria (from Human history)
Image 45The MOSFET (MOS transistor) is central to the Digital Revolution, and the most widely manufactured device in history. It was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in November 1959. (from 20th century)
(c) G Da, CC BY-SA 3.0
Image 46Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), Turkey (from Human history)
Image 47Ralph Baer's Magnavox Odyssey, the first video game console, released in 1972. (from 20th century)
Image 48Angkor Wat temple, Cambodia, early 12th century (from Human history)
Image 49The Pantheon in Rome, Italy, originally a Roman temple, now a Catholic church (from Human history)
Image 50Notre-Dame de Paris in Paris, France: is among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of Christendom. (from Human history)
Image 51Persepolis, Achaemenid Empire, 6th century BCE (from Human history)
Image 52The Blue Marble, Earth as seen from Apollo 17 in December 1972. The photograph was taken by LMP Harrison Schmitt. The second half of the 20th century saw humanity's first space exploration. (from 20th century)
Image 53World War I trench warfare (from Human history)
Image 54A Visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet. Partial map of the Internet based in 2005. (from Contemporary history)
Image 55American Buzz Aldrin during the first moonwalk in 1969. The relatively young aerospace engineering industries rapidly grew in the 66 years after the Wright brothers' first flight. (from 20th century)
(c) Nicolás Pérez, CC-BY-SA-3.0
Image 56Watt's steam engine powered the Industrial Revolution. (from Human history)
Image 57Maya observatory, Chichen Itza, Mexico (from Human history)
Image 58Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (c. 1490), Renaissance Italy (from Human history)
Image 59Chennakesava Temple, Belur, India (from Human history)
Image 60Obelisk of Axum, Ethiopia (from Human history)

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