Holy Roman Emperor
| Emperor of the Romans | |
|---|---|
| Imperator Romanorum Kaiser der Römer | |
Imperial | |
 (c) I, N3MO, CC-BY-SA-3.0 | |
 | |
| Details | |
| First monarch | Charlemagne (AD 800 formation) Otto the Great (AD 962 formation) |
| Last monarch | Francis II |
| Formation | 25 December 800 |
| Abolition | 6 August 1806 |
The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (Latin: Imperator Romanorum, German: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the German-Roman Emperor since the early modern period[1] (Latin: Imperator Germanorum, German: Römisch-deutscher Kaiser, lit. 'Roman-German emperor'), was the ruler and head of state of the Holy Roman Empire. The empire was considered by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only successor of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The title was held in conjunction with the title of king of Italy (Rex Italiae) from the 8th to the 16th century, and, almost without interruption, with the title of king of Germany (Rex Teutonicorum, lit. “King of the Teutons”) throughout the 12th to 18th centuries.[2]
In theory and diplomacy, the emperors were considered primus inter pares, regarded as first among equals among other Roman Catholic monarchs across Europe.[3]
From an autocracy in Carolingian times (AD 800–924) the title by the 13th century evolved into an elective monarchy, with the emperor chosen by the prince-electors. Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, became de facto hereditary holders of the title, notably the Ottonians (962–1024) and the Salians (1027–1125). Following the late medieval crisis of government, the Habsburgs kept possession of the title without interruption from 1440 to 1740. The final emperors were from the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, from 1765 to 1806. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by Francis II, after a devastating defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz.
The emperor was widely perceived to rule by divine right, though he often contradicted or rivaled the pope, most notably during the Investiture controversy. The Holy Roman Empire never had an empress regnant, though women such as Theophanu and Maria Theresa exerted strong influence. Throughout its history, the position was viewed as a defender of the Roman Catholic faith. Until Maximilian I in 1508, the emperor-elect (Imperator electus) was required to be crowned by the pope before assuming the imperial title. Charles V was the last to be crowned by the pope in 1530. Even after the Reformation, the elected emperor was always a Roman Catholic. There were short periods in history when the electoral college was dominated by Protestants, and the electors usually voted in their own political interest.
Title
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From the time of Constantine I (r. 306–337), the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the Christian emperor in the Church. Emperors considered themselves responsible to the gods for the spiritual health of their subjects, and after Constantine they had a duty to help the Church define and maintain orthodoxy. The emperor's role was to enforce doctrine, root out heresy, and uphold ecclesiastical unity.[4] Both the title and connection between Emperor and Church continued in the Eastern Roman Empire throughout the medieval period (in exile during 1204–1261). The ecumenical councils of the 5th to 8th centuries were convoked by the Eastern Roman Emperors.[5]
In Western Europe, the title of Emperor in the West lapsed after the death of Julius Nepos in 480, although the rulers of the barbarian kingdoms continued to recognize the authority of the Eastern Emperor at least nominally well into the 6th century. While the reconquest of Justinian I had reestablished Byzantine presence in Italy, religious frictions existed with the Papacy who sought dominance over the Constantinople Church. Toward the end of the 8th century the Papacy still recognised the ruler at Constantinople as the Roman Emperor, though Byzantine military support in Italy had increasingly waned, leading to the Papacy to look to the Franks for protection. In 800 Pope Leo III owed a great debt to Charlemagne, the King of the Franks and King of Italy, for securing his life and position. By this time, the Eastern Emperor Constantine VI has been deposed in 797 and replaced as monarch by his mother, Irene.[6]
Under the pretext that a woman cannot rule the empire, Pope Leo III declared the throne vacant and crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum), the successor of Constantine VI as Roman emperor under the concept of translatio imperii.[6] On his coins, the name and title used by Charlemagne is Karolus Imperator Augustus and in his documents, he used Imperator Augustus Romanum gubernans Imperium ("August Emperor, governing the Roman Empire") and serenissimus Augustus a Deo coronatus, magnus pacificus Imperator Romanorum gubernans Imperium ("most serene Augustus crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the empire of the Romans"). The Eastern Empire eventually relented to recognizing Charlemagne and his successors as emperors, but as "Frankish" and "German emperors", at no point referring to them as Roman, a label they reserved for themselves.[7]
The title of emperor in the West implied recognition by the pope. As the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was that known as the investiture controversy, fought during the 11th century between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.
After the coronation of Charlemagne, his successors maintained the title until the death of Berengar I of Italy in 924. The comparatively brief interregnum between 924 and the coronation of Otto the Great in 962 is taken as marking the transition from the Frankish Empire to the Holy Roman Empire. Under the Ottonians, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire.
Since 911, the various German princes had elected the King of the Germans from among their peers. The King of the Germans would then be crowned as emperor following the precedent set by Charlemagne, during the period of 962–1530. Charles V was the last emperor to be crowned by the pope, and his successor, Ferdinand I, merely adopted the title of "Emperor elect" in 1558. The final Holy Roman emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire's final dissolution.
The term sacrum (i.e., "holy") in connection with the German Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa.[8]
The Holy Roman Emperor's standard designation was "August Emperor of the Romans" (Romanorum Imperator Augustus). When Charlemagne was crowned in 800, he was styled as "most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire," thus constituting the elements of "Holy" and "Roman" in the imperial title.[9]
The word Roman was a reflection of the principle of translatio imperii (or in this case restauratio imperii) that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of emperor of the Western Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of the Eastern Roman Empire.
In German-language historiography, the term Römisch-deutscher Kaiser ("Roman-German emperor") is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman emperor on one hand, and that of German emperor (Deutscher Kaiser) on the other. The English term "Holy Roman Emperor" is a modern shorthand for "emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" not corresponding to the historical style or title, i.e., the adjective "holy" is not intended as modifying "emperor"; the English term "Holy Roman Emperor" gained currency in the interbellum period (the 1920s to 1930s); formerly the title had also been rendered "German-Roman emperor" in English.[1]
Succession
The elective monarchy of the kingdom of Germany goes back to the early 10th century, the election of Conrad I of Germany in 911 following the death without issue of Louis the Child, the last Carolingian ruler of Germany. Elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. The process of an election meant that the prime candidate had to make concessions, by which the voters were kept on his side, which was known as Wahlkapitulationen (electoral capitulation).
Conrad was elected by the German dukes, and it is not known precisely when the system of seven prince-electors was established. The papal decree Venerabilem by Innocent III (1202), addressed to Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen, establishes the election procedure by (unnamed) princes of the realm, reserving for the pope the right to approve of the candidates. A letter of Pope Urban IV (1263), in the context of the disputed vote of 1256 and the subsequent interregnum, suggests that by "immemorial custom", seven princes had the right to elect the king and future emperor. The seven prince-electors are named in the Golden Bull of 1356: the archbishop of Mainz, the archbishop of Trier, the archbishop of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg.
After 1438, the kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the brief exception of Charles VII, who was a Wittelsbach. Maximilian I (emperor 1508–1519) and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as emperor by the pope. Maximilian, therefore, named himself elected Roman emperor (Erwählter Römischer Kaiser) in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors. Of his successors, only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation.
The elector palatine's seat was conferred on the duke of Bavaria in 1621, but in 1648, in the wake of the Thirty Years' War, the elector palatine was restored, as the eighth elector. Electorate of Hanover was added as a ninth elector in 1692. The whole college was reshuffled in the German mediatization of 1803 with a total of ten electors, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire.
List of emperors
This list includes all 47 German monarchs crowned from Charlemagne until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire (800–1806).
Several rulers were crowned king of the Romans (king of Germany) but not emperor, although they styled themselves thus, among whom were: Conrad I and Henry the Fowler in the 10th century, and Conrad IV, Rudolf I, Adolf and Albert I during the interregnum of the late 13th century.
Traditional historiography assumes a continuity between the Carolingian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, while a modern convention takes the coronation of Otto I in 962 as the starting point of the Holy Roman Empire (although the term Sacrum Imperium Romanum was not in use before the 13th century).
Frankish emperors
On Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, in opposition to Empress Irene, who was then ruling the Roman Empire from Constantinople. Charlemagne's descendents from the Carolingian Dynasty continued to be crowned Emperor until 899, excepting a brief period when the Imperial crown was awarded to the Widonid Dukes of Spoleto. There is some contention as to whether the Holy Roman Empire dates as far back as Charlemagne, some histories consider the Carolingian Empire to be a distinct polity from the later Holy Roman Empire as established under Otto I in 962.
800–888: Carolingian dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | Reign | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Charlemagne (Charles I) 742–814 | 25 December 800 | 28 January 814 | ||
 | Louis I, the Pious 778–840 | 11 September 813[10] | 20 June 840 | Son of Charles I |
|
 | Lothair I 795–855 | 5 April 823 | 29 September 855 | Son of Louis I | |
 | Louis II 825–875 | 29 September 855 | 12 August 875 | Son of Lothair I | |
 | Charles II, the Bald 823–877 | 29 December 875 | 6 October 877 | Son of Louis I, younger brother of Lothair I | |
 | Charles III, the Fat 839–888 | 12 February 881 | 13 January 888 | Grandson of Louis I | |
891–898: Widonid dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | Reign | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Guy ?–894 | 21 February 891 | 12 December 894 | Great-great-grandson of Charles I |
|
 | Lambert 880–898 | 30 April 892 | 15 October 898 | Son of Guy |
|
896–899: Carolingian dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | Reign | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) | Arnulph 850–899 | 22 February 896 | 8 December 899 | Nephew of Charles III, great-grandson of Louis I | |
901–905: Bosonid dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | Reign | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Louis III, the Blind 880–928 | 22 February 901 | 21 July 905 | Grandson of Louis II |
|
915–924: Unruoching dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | Reign | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Berengar 845–924 | December 915 | 7 April 924 | Grandson of Louis I |
|
Holy Roman Emperors
While earlier Germanic and Italian monarchs had been crowned as Roman emperors, the actual Holy Roman Empire is often considered to have begun with the crowning Otto I, at the time Duke of Saxony and King of Germany. Because the King of Germany was an elected position, being elected King of Germany was functionally a pre-requisite to being crowned Holy Roman Emperor. By the 13th century, the Prince-electors became formalized as a specific body of seven electors, consisting of three bishops and four secular princes. Through the middle 15th century, the electors chose freely from among a number of dynasties. A period of dispute during the second half of the 13th century over the kingship of Germany led to there being no emperor crowned for several decades, through this ended in 1312 with the coronation of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor. The period of free election ended with the ascension of the Austrian House of Habsburg, as an unbroken line of Habsburgs held the imperial throne until the 18th century. Later a cadet branch known as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine passed it from father to son until the abolition of the Empire in 1806. Notably, from the 16th century, the Habsburgs dispensed with the requirement that emperors be crowned by the pope before exercising their office. Starting with Ferdinand I, all successive emperors forwent the traditional coronation.
962–1024: Ottonian dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Otto I, the Great 912–973 | 7 August 936 | 2 February 962 | 7 May 973 |
| |
.jpg) | Otto II, the Red 955–983 | 26 May 961 | 25 December 967 | 7 December 983 | Son of Otto I |
|
 | Otto III 980–1002 | 25 December 983 | 21 May 996 | 23 January 1002 | Son of Otto II |
|
 | Henry II[note 1] 973–1024 | 7 June 1002 | 14 February 1014 | 13 July 1024 | Second cousin of Otto III |
|
1027–1125: Salian dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Conrad II, the Elder[note 2] 990–1039 | 8 September 1024 | 26 March 1027 | 4 June 1039 | Great-great-grandson of Otto I |
|
_Miniatur.jpg) | Henry III, the Black 1017–1056 | 14 April 1028 | 25 December 1046 | 5 October 1056 | Son of Conrad II |
|
 | Henry IV 1050–1106 | 17 July 1054 | 1 April 1084 | 7 August 1106 | Son of Henry III |
|
 | Henry V[11] 1086–1125 | 6 January 1099 | 13 April 1111 | 23 May 1125 | Son of Henry IV |
|
1133–1137: Supplinburg dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Lothair II[note 3] 1075–1137 | 30 August 1125 | 4 June 1133 | 4 December 1137 | Great-great-great-great-great-great-grandnephew of Otto I |
|
1155–1197: Staufen dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) | Frederick I Barbarossa 1122–1190 | 4 March 1152 | 18 June 1155 | 10 June 1190 | Great-grandson of Henry IV |
|
.jpg) | Henry VI 1165–1197 | 15 August 1169 | 14 April 1191 | 28 September 1197 | Son of Frederick I |
|
1198–1215: Welf dynasty
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 | .svg) | Otto IV 1175–1218 | 9 June 1198 | 21 October 1209 | 1215 | Great-grandson of Lothair II |
|
1220–1250: Staufen dynasty
| Portrait | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) | Frederick II, Stupor Mundi 1194–1250 | 5 December 1212 | 22 November 1220 | 13 December 1250 | Son of Henry VI |
|
The interregnum of the Holy Roman Empire is taken to have lasted from the deposition of Frederick II by Pope Innocent IV (1245, alternatively from the death of Frederick 1250 or the death of Conrad IV 1254) to the election of Rudolf I of Germany (1273). Rudolf was not crowned emperor, nor were his successors Adolf and Albert. The next emperor was Henry VII, crowned on 29 June 1312 by Pope Clement V.
1312–1313: House of Luxembourg
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
| Henry VII 1273–1313 | 27 November 1308 | 29 June 1312 | 24 August 1313 | Great x11 grandson of Charles II |
|
1314–1347: House of Wittelsbach
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 (c) I, Sailko, CC BY-SA 3.0 |
| Louis IV, the Bavarian 1282–1347 | 20 October 1314 | 17 January 1328 | 11 October 1347 | Far descendant of Henry IV and great-great-great-great-grandson of Lothair II |
|
1346–1437: House of Luxembourg
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |
| Charles IV 1316–1378 | 11 July 1346 | 5 April 1355 | 29 November 1378 | Grandson of Henry VII |
| |||
 |
| Sigismund 1368–1437 | 10 September 1410 /21 July 1411 | 31 May 1433 | 9 December 1437 | Son of Charles IV |
|
1440–1740: House of Habsburg
In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian's predecessor Frederick III was the last to be crowned Emperor by the Pope in Rome.
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  | Frederick III, the Peaceful 1415–1493 | 2 February 1440 | 16 March 1452 | 19 August 1493 | Second cousin of Albert II of Germany, Emperor designate |
|
 |  | Maximilian I 1459–1519 | 16 February 1486 | 4 February 1508 | 12 January 1519 | Son of Frederick III |
|
 |  | Charles V 1500–1558 | 28 June 1519 | 28 June 1519 | 27 August 1556 | Grandson of Maximilian I |
|
 | .svg) (c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0 | Ferdinand I 1503–1564 | 5 January 1531 | 27 August 1556 | 25 July 1564 | Brother of Charles V; grandson of Maximilian I |
|
 | (c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0 | Maximilian II 1527–1576 | 22 November 1562 | 25 July 1564 | 12 October 1576 | Son of Ferdinand I |
|
.png) | .svg) (c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0 | Rudolf II[note 4] 1552–1612 | 27 October 1575 | 12 October 1576 | 20 January 1612 | Son of Maximilian II |
|
.jpg) | (c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0 | Matthias 1557–1619 | 13 June 1612 | 13 June 1612 | 20 March 1619 | Brother of Rudolf II |
|
 | (c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0 | Ferdinand II 1578–1637 | 28 August 1619 | 28 August 1619 | 15 February 1637 | Cousin of Matthias; grandson of Ferdinand I |
|
 |  | Ferdinand III 1608–1657 | 22 December 1636 | 15 February 1637 | 2 April 1657 | Son of Ferdinand II |
|
.svg) (c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0 | Leopold I 1640–1705 | 18 July 1658 | 18 July 1658 | 5 May 1705 | Son of Ferdinand III |
| |
 | .svg) (c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0 | Joseph I 1678–1711 | 23 January 1690 | 5 May 1705 | 17 April 1711 | Son of Leopold I |
|
 |  | Charles VI 1685–1740 | 12 October 1711 | 12 October 1711 | 20 October 1740 | Brother of Joseph I; son of Leopold I | Full list
|
1742–1745: House of Wittelsbach
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  | Charles VII 1697–1745 | 24 January 1742 | 24 January 1742 | 20 January 1745 | Great-great grandson of Ferdinand II; son-in-law of Joseph I |
|
1745–1765: House of Lorraine
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) |  | Francis I 1708–1765 | 13 September 1745 | 13 September 1745 | 18 August 1765 | Great-grandson of Ferdinand III; son-in-law of Charles VI |
|
1765–1806: House of Habsburg-Lorraine
| Portrait | Coat of arms | Name Lifespan | King | Emperor | Ended | Relationship with predecessor(s) | Other title(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  | Joseph II 1741–1790 | 27 March 1764 | 18 August 1765 | 20 February 1790 | Son of Empress Maria Theresa, de facto ruler of the empire, and Francis I. |
|
 |  | Leopold II 1747–1792 | 30 September 1790 | 30 September 1790 | 1 March 1792 | Son of Empress Maria Theresa,de facto ruler of the empire, and Francis I. Brother of Joseph II. |
|
 | | Francis II 1768–1835 | 5 July 1792 | 5 July 1792 | 6 August 1806 | Son of Leopold II |
|
Coronation
The Emperor was crowned in a special ceremony, traditionally performed by the Pope in Rome. Without that coronation, no king, despite exercising all powers, could call himself Emperor. In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.[12] Maximilian's first successor Charles V was the last to be crowned Emperor.
| Emperor | Coronation date | Officiant | Location |
|---|---|---|---|
| Charles I | 25 December 800 | Pope Leo III | Rome, Italy |
| Louis I | 5 October 816 | Pope Stephen IV | Reims, France |
| Lothair I | 5 April 823 | Pope Paschal I | Rome, Italy |
| Louis II | 15 June 844 | Pope Leo IV | Rome, Italy |
| Charles II | 29 December 875 | Pope John VIII | Rome, Italy |
| Charles III | 12 February 881 | Rome, Italy | |
| Guy III of Spoleto | 21 February 891 | Pope Stephen V | Rome, Italy |
| Lambert II of Spoleto | 30 April 892 | Pope Formosus | Ravenna, Italy |
| Arnulf of Carinthia | 22 February 896 | Rome, Italy | |
| Louis III | 15 or 22 February 901 | Pope Benedict IV | Rome, Italy |
| Berengar | December 915 | Pope John X | Rome, Italy |
| Otto I | 2 February 962 | Pope John XII | Rome, Italy |
| Otto II | 25 December 967 | Pope John XIII | Rome, Italy |
| Otto III | 21 May 996 | Pope Gregory V | Monza, Italy |
| Henry II | 14 February 1014 | Pope Benedict VIII | Rome, Italy |
| Conrad II | 26 March 1027 | Pope John XIX | Rome, Italy |
| Henry III | 25 December 1046 | Pope Clement II | Rome, Italy |
| Henry IV | 31 March 1084 | Antipope Clement III | Rome, Italy |
| Henry V | 13 April 1111 | Pope Paschal II | Rome, Italy |
| Lothair III | 4 June 1133 | Pope Innocent II | Rome, Italy |
| Frederick I | 18 June 1155 | Pope Adrian IV | Rome, Italy |
| Henry VI | 14 April 1191 | Pope Celestine III | Rome, Italy |
| Otto IV | 4 October 1209 | Pope Innocent III | Rome, Italy |
| Frederick II | 22 November 1220 | Pope Honorius III | Rome, Italy |
| Henry VII | 29 June 1312 | Ghibellines cardinals | Rome, Italy |
| Louis IV | 17 January 1328 | Senator Sciarra Colonna | Rome, Italy |
| Charles IV | 5 April 1355 | Pope Innocent VI's cardinal | Rome, Italy |
| Sigismund | 31 May 1433 | Pope Eugenius IV | Rome, Italy |
| Frederick III | 19 March 1452 | Pope Nicholas V | Rome, Italy |
| Charles V | 24 February 1530 | Pope Clement VII | Bologna, Italy |
See also
- Concordat of Worms
- Emperor for other uses of the title "Emperor" in Europe.
- First Council of the Lateran
- Holy Roman Emperors family tree
- Holy Roman Empress
- King of the Romans
- List of German monarchs
- Holy Roman Empire
- King of Italy
- Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)
Notes
- ^ Enumerated as successor of Henry I who was German King 919–936 but not Emperor.
- ^ Enumerated as successor of Conrad I who was German King 911–918 but not Emperor
- ^ Enumerated also Lothair III as successor of Lothair II, who was King of Lotharingia 855–869 but not Emperor
- ^ Enumerated as successor of Rudolph I who was German King 1273–1291.
References
- ^ a b The New International Encyclopædia vol. 10 (1927), p. 675. Carlton J. H. Hayes, A Political and Cvltvral History of Modern Europe vol. 1 (1932), p. 225.
- ^ Peter Hamish Wilson, The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806, MacMillan Press 1999, London, p. 2. Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn: The Menace of the Herd or Procrustes at Large – p. 164. Robert Edwin Herzstein, Robert Edwin Herzstein: +The Holy Roman Empire in the Middle Ages: universal state or German catastrophe?"
- ^ Terry Breverton (2014). Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About the Tudors but Were Afraid to Ask. Amberley Publishing. p. 104. ISBN 9781445638454.
- ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 14–15.
- ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 16.
- ^ a b James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, 1864, pp 62–64
- ^ Klewitz, Hans-Walter (1943). "Eduard Eichmann, die Kaiserkrönung im Abendland. Ein Beitrag zur, Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des kirchlichen Rechts, der Liturgie und der Kirchenpolitik". Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Kanonistische Abteilung. 32: 509–525. doi:10.7767/zrgka.1943.32.1.509. S2CID 183386465.
- ^ Peter Moraw, Heiliges Reich, in: Lexikon des Mittelalters, Munich & Zurich: Artemis 1977–1999, vol. 4, columns 2025–2028.
- ^ Bryce, James (1968). The Holy Roman Empire. Macmillan. p. 530.
- ^ Egon Boshof: Ludwig der Fromme. Darmstadt 1996, p. 89
- ^ Barraclough, Geoffrey (1984). The Origins of Modern Germany. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30153-3.
- ^ " Wir Franz der Zweyte, von Gottes Gnaden erwählter römischer KaiserImperator Austriae, Fransiscus I (1804), Allerhöchste Pragmatikal-Verordnung vom 11. August 1804, The HR Emperor, p. 1
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Papst Paschalis II. [oder Bischof Ruthard von Mainz?] überreicht Kaiser Heinrich V. den Reichsapfel als Symbol der weltlichen Macht
Coins of Pope Benedict IV and Emperor Louis III
Portrait of Ferdinand II (1578–1637), King of Bohemia and later Hungary, Holy Roman Emperor
(c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor.
.svg)
Author/Creator: Heralder & Tom Lemmens, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Shield and Coat of Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor, drawn in the style the late medieval period.
Also used as shield of arms (generic) by the King of the Romans
Sceau de Charles III le gros, IXème siècle. Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich.
Emperors of the Salian dynasty: Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor an the throne holding images of Henry III, Henry IV, Conrad, Henry V and Agnes
.svg)
(c) I, N3MO, CC-BY-SA-3.0
Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor (after 1400).
Sacramentary of king Henry II [1002-14] - München BSB Clm 4456 Seite 33c: King Henry II
Author/Creator: Adelbrecht & Heralder, elements Sodacan, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant
Seal of Arnulph of Carinthia, from 896.
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire
Artist: Johann Adam Delsenbach, done in 1751.
Kaiser Friedrich III. nach einem verlorenen Original von 1468
Person depicted: Emperor Sigismund I. Son of Charles IV of Luxembourg
Seal of king Wido on a paper from his coronation, Pavia AD 889
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Author/Creator: Heralder & Tom Lemmens, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Shield and Coat of Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor, based on the depiction in Codex Manesse (c. 1310). An imperial coat of arms in this style was in use from c. 1200 to c. 1430. From 1433 (accession of Sigismund), use of the double-headed eagle became prevalent. The shield shape used here is typical of the early to mid 14th century. A variant with a shield shape more typical of the late 14th to early 15th century can be found here.
Author/Creator: Adelbrecht (in collaboration with Heralder), inescutcheon by Katepanomegas and castles and lions by Sodacan, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (Charles I as King of Spain). Or shield variant (1530-1556)
.svg)
Author/Creator: Tom Lemmens & Heralder, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Double-headed Reichsadler, Heraldic shield of the Holy Roman Emperor, from Wernigeroder Wappenbuch (c. 1475-1500) [the heads should be crowned]
Author/Creator: Adelbrecht (in collaboration with Heralder), inescutcheon by: Katepanomegas, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor
(c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor.
Otto I., sogen. 3. Kaisersiegel, Magdeburg, Landeshauptarchiv Sachsen-Anhalt, Rep. U 1, Tit. I. Nr. 23: 966 August 24, aus: Bernward 2, II-2, S. 18f. (R. Kahsnitz).
(c) I, Sailko, CC BY-SA 3.0
Author/Creator: Claes Heynenzoon before 23 june 1405, SVG Own work, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Coat of arms of Luxembourg, drawn after the Beyeren Armorial (1405), where it is attributed to "Henry of Luxembourg" (presumably Henry VI, 1240–1288).
Henry of Luxembourg being crowned Emperor
Portrait of Kaiser Rudolf II
Author/Creator: Tom Lemmens (in collaboration with Heralder), Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Coat of Arms of Leopold II and Francis II, Holy Roman Emperors-Or shield variant
.svg){kind=link}
Author/Creator: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra from Paris, France, Licence: CC BY 2.0
Empereur en majesté Vitrail dernier quart du XIIème siècle Cathédrale de Strasbourg déposé au musée vers 1880
Oeuvre présentée au musée de l'oeuvre Notre-Dame à Strasbourg
www.musees.strasbourg.eu/musee-de-l-oeuvre-notre-dame
Author/Creator: Own work, from elements by: Tom Lemmens, Heralder, Ssolbergj, Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
A possible coat of arms for emperor Sigismund.
For use with the imperial coa at File:Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor (c.1433-c.1450).svg (same shield shape). Sigismund used many different combinations of coats of arms in the course of his life, not to mention the permutations used in attribution to him after his death, and there isn't a single correct one. The inescutcheon version here appears to be slightly anachronistic. He used the Hungarian coats of arms per pale in one seal, and the Hungarian (Arpad) stripes with the Bohemian lion per pale in a later seal (used here). Equestrian seals also show quartering of the Bohemian lion with the imperial eagle.
Still other seals show arrangements of up to six separate shields without division of the field, or quartering of the Hungarian (Arpad) stripes with the Bohemian lion..svg){kind=link}
Author/Creator: Adelbrecht (in collaboration with Heralder), Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Leopold II and Francis II, Holy Roman Emperors-Or shield variant
Louis II, king of Italy and emperor of the Romans. (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 5411, fol. 85v)
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor.
(c) I, N3MO, CC-BY-SA-3.0
Coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire from ca. 1433
(emperor Sigismund was the first to use the double-headed eagle, but the single-headed eagle continued to see some use well into the 16th century).
The style is loosely based on that of the mid-16th century (cf. e.g. Jacob Kallenberg (1545)), but largely equivalent designs were used in heraldry well into the 19th century.
Author/Creator: Joseph Hickel , Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Ritratto di Giuseppe II d'Asburgo
(c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor.
Author/Creator: Tom Lemmens & Heralder, elements Sodacan, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Coat of Arms of of Charles VII Albert, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant
Author/Creator: User:Dbachmann, Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Wittelsbach coat of arms in the style of the 14th century.
The shield shape is chosen to go with File:Shield and Coat of Arms of the Holy Roman Emperor (c.1200-c.1300).svg. The size and arrangement of the lozenges is informed by the equestrian seal of Louis IV (File:Posse Band 1 b 0084.jpg), as far as has been possible within the chosen shield shape.
Note that Louis IV also used the Wittelsbach lozenges per pale with the Palatine lion, as seen here: File:Posse_Band_1_b_0085.jpg..svg){kind=link}
Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor.
Author/Creator: Adelbrecht (in collaboration with Heralder), Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant
Imperial coat of arms (Holy Roman Empire), with the seven coats of arms of the prince-electors: Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Bohemia, Palatinate, Brandenburg, Saxony. Title page of a 1545 armorial printed in Frankfurt.
Kaiser Karl VI. im Krönungsornat
Author/Creator: Adelbrecht (in collaboration with Heralder), Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant
Author/Creator: Ssolbergj, Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
The coat of arms of the Czech Republic
Lambert de Spolète.
Obverse of a Charlemagne denier (a silver coin) coined in Mainz from 812 to 814, today at the Cabinet des Médailles in Paris.
Author/Creator: Adelbrecht & Heralder, elements Sodacan, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant
Author/Creator: Tom Lemmens & Heralder, Licence: CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor
(c) Heralder, CC BY-SA 3.0
Arms of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor.
- "The seven electors choose Henry, Count of Luxembourg, as King of the Romans at Frankfurt on the 27th day of November."
- The "Seven Prince Electors" electing Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor. The electoral princes, identified by the coat of arms above their heads, from left to right are the archbishops of Cologne (Heinrich II. von Virneburg), Mainz (Peter von Aspelt), and Trier (Balduin von Luxemburg), the count palatine of the Rhine (count of former Electorate of the Palatinate) (Rudolf I. (Pfalz)), the duke of Saxony (Rudolf 1. (Sachsen-Wittenberg)), the margrave of Brandenburg (Waldemar (Brandenburg)), and the king of Bohemia (Heinrich von Kärnten).
- Pen-and-ink miniature from the picture chronicle of Henry VII (Balduineum).
- Drawing on parchment from 1341; today at public main federal state record office in Koblenz, Germany.
Author/Creator: FDRMRZUSA, Licence: CC BY-SA 4.0
Coat of arms of Otto IV of Brunswick as Holy Roman Emperor (Chronica Maiora).